Pre-independence Ketuanan Melayu

1 pre-independence

1.1 malay nationalism
1.2 malayan union (1946–48)
1.3 towards independence
1.4 possible origins of ketuanan melayu
1.5 alliance - 1955 federal legislative council elections

pre-independence

the british recognised malay rulers sovereign on malaya.



early malay nationalism

malay nationalism organised political movement existed since invasion foreign powers. however, ethnic chinese , indian immigrants, forming minority of population, did not see malayans. report british permanent under-secretary of state colonies in 1930s found number of non-malays have adopted malaya home small proportion of whole population .

although british ruled malaya, de jure malays coerced under fictitious agreements accept british administration through residence system. british high commissioner sir hugh clifford, demonstrated british ideology rationalised colonialism in malaya when urged in country [to] mindful of fact malay country, , british came here @ invitation of highnesses malay rulers, , our duty malays rule own country.

ostensibly british adopted open pro-malay policy malays could, in words of high commissioner sir laurence guillemard, equipped take proper place in administrative , commercial life of these states. in reality, non-elite malays felt marginalised economic , political policies of colonial government, whereas in fact backbone of british rule, , both educational , occupational policies segregated according ethnic lines.

the local-born non-malay communities began fight self-rule. in 1936, malayan-born indian community asked high commissioner sir shenton thomas grant them share of administrative appointments. thomas rejected request, referring local-born indians foreigners . although british appeared view chinese transient labor force, statistics indicating chinese migrants returned home, critics contend local-born chinese population steadily growing. nevertheless, british insisted dangerous consider chinese having tendency permanent settlement ; locally born indian community — comprising 20% of indian population, rest being manual labourers having migrated similar reasons chinese @ around same time — likewise largely ignored.

the british relegated malays traditional peasant lifestyle far possible, restricting movement, economic enterprises , education. policy maintained in belief education of bengalis in india had led discontent , rebellion. involved malay ruling class in government , administrative issues. despite exclusion of non-malays positions of ostensible authority, of civil service rank , file comprised non-malays, many of them indians brought in purpose. number of historians have described pro-malay policies designed merely preserve position of british, rather strengthen of malays; many characterised british approach 1 of divide , rule , keeping races @ right distance each other have disparate elements of malaya work in remote harmony .

in 1920s, local-born chinese, retained significant economic power, began pushing greater role in malayan government. of chinese community, made 45% of malayan population, still comprised transient labourers. nevertheless, straits chinese — comprised bulk of local-born chinese — wanted given government positions , recognised malayans. 1 straits chinese leader asked, said malay country? ... when captain [francis] light arrived, did find malays, or malay villages? our forefathers came here , worked hard coolies — weren t ashamed become coolies — , didn t send money china. married , spent money here, , in way government able open country jungle civilization. ve become inseparable country. s ours, our country... malay intellectuals objected reasoning, claiming such reasoning totally absurd , proposing analogy chinese masons , malaya house. paid mason, argued, not entitled share in ownership rights home built. such, opposed attempt grant chinese citizenship or other political rights.

a number of indonesian ethnic groups such javanese , bugis had migrated within malay archipelago throughout nineteenth , twentieth centuries, , assimilated malay cultural identity. eventually, chinese-malayan appeals appeared have impact on british. in 1927, governor of straits settlements referred chinese indigenous inhabitants of british malaya .

just before world war ii, malay nationalism began emphasising ketuanan melayu, had once been taken granted. feared british policies seemed geared towards creating common malayan nationality inclusive of chinese , indians. malays sought preserve status quo british bulwark against non-malays. others began calling independent , sovereign malay nation, such greater indonesia .

the malayan union (1946–48)

after world war ii, british announced establishment of malayan union, loosen immigration policies, reduce sovereignty of malay rulers, , not recognise malay supremacy, establishing malaya protectorate of united kingdom. local-born residents, chinese , indians qualified citizenship under union s principle of jus soli. equal rights guaranteed all, malays became dissatisfied that. traditional stronghold, civil service, open malayans. in first place, malays did not consider included under label of malayans .

the malays became politically conscious, protesting union s formation. @ 1 gathering, placards declared malaya belongs malays. not want other races given rights , privileges of malays. 1 malay organisation told british union s citizenship provisions lead wiping existence of malay race along land , rulers . group of malay royalists , civil servants led dato onn ja afar formed united malays national organisation (umno) protest malayan union s formation.

although union established planned, campaign continued; in 1948, british replaced malayan union federation of malaya. federation restored sovereignty malay rulers, tightened immigration , citizenship restrictions, , gave malays special privileges. nevertheless, avowed goal of british remained same in 1946: introduce form of common citizenship open those, irrespective of race, regarded malaya real home , object of loyalty.

limited opposition ketuanan melayu , umno during period came coalition between all-malaya council of joint action (amcja) , pusat tenaga rakyat (putera). although 1 of putera s constituent organisations had insisted on ketuanan melayu national birthright of malays, putera joined amcja in championing equal political rights non-malays. after british refused heed putera-amcja coalition, pulled out of talks british, later launching major hartal (general strike) protest perceived defects in new polity. after federation formed on objections, coalition disbanded.

prior federation, non-malays uninvolved in malayan politics , nationalism, both malay in nature; being more interested in politics of respective homelands, non-malays never backed malayan union openly silence support it. amcja, though non-malay, did not represent large section of non-malay communities in malaya. lack of interest in or loyalty malaya amongst non-malays seemed justify ketuanan melayu — malay self-rule.

some historians have argued union s failure made chinese aware of need political representation. malayan chinese association (mca) — communal political party campaigning chinese political rights — formed after federation s formation. others claim main driving force behind non-malay involvement in malayan politics, , assertion of rights, increasing number of local-born non-malays. same report british permanent under-secretary of state colonies cited earlier stated malayan-born non-malays have never seen land of origin , claim children , children s children should have fair treatment. inaugural president of mca tan cheng lock, local-born chinese had led amcja until breaking up.

towards independence

its initial goals achieved, umno established political party fight independence. @ same time, malayan communist party (mcp) launched armed insurgency form communist government in malaya, culminating in malayan emergency lasted until after independence. insurgency marked clear racial divide; opposition insurrection entirely malay, while chinese dominated communist ranks. british encouraged establishment of communities liaison committee (clc), comprising top echelon of malayan politicians different communities, address sensitive issues, related race. compromises on number of issues, including citizenship, education, democracy, , malay supremacy, agreed on. eventually, bargain between malays , non-malays formulated; in return giving ketuanan melayu, malays assisted in closing economic gap between malay , non-malay communities. clc member e.e.c. thuraisingham later said, , others believed backward malays should given better deal. malays should assisted attain parity non-malays forge united malayan nation of equals.

problems continued crop up. many chinese malayan youths drafted army stave off communist attacks fled country; participants english- , not chinese-educated. malays, indicated chinese had no particular loyalty towards malaya , justified ketuanan melayu, heightening similar perceptions caused apparent racial dichotomy between in fierce opposition communists , supporting mcp.

in 1950s, onn ja afar proposed open umno membership malayans, , renaming united malayan national organisation, have diluted identity champion of ketuanan melayu. defeated in internal power struggle, resigned in 1951 found independence of malaya party (imp). succeeded tunku abdul rahman (often known tunku ), insisted on initial malay sovereignty. expressing concern on lack of loyalty malaya among non-malays, demanded clarify allegiance before being accorded citizenship, going on state: love , feel owe undivided loyalty country, welcome them malayans. must malayans, , have same rights , privileges malays. not long after, in 1952, however, appeared contradict himself, , insisted malays safeguard special position: malaya malays , should not governed mixture of races.

during 1950s, there active straits chinese secessionist movement in penang agitating against ketuanan melayu.

during period, straits chinese began taking interest in local politics, in penang, there active chinese secessionist movement. identifying more british malays, angered references them pendatang asing (foreigners). avoiding both umno , mca, believed while umno , malay extremists intent on extending malay privileges , restricting chinese rights, mca selfish , , not relied on. uncomfortable merger of straits settlements malaya, did not feel sense of belonging in malaya malays not considered bumiputra ( sons of soil ). 1 straits chinese leader indignantly declared, can claim more anak pulau pinang [a son of penang] 99 per cent of malays living here today. government s stout rejection of secession, movement petered out.

some suggested non-malays did not feel loyal malaya because did not consider of malayan nationality , adhere strictly own ethnic cultural backgrounds. counter this, in 1952 citizenship granted local-born non-malays, , dual citizenship prohibited, forcing non-malays choose between ancestral homeland , malaya. in contrast malay s hypothesis, majority of non-malays remained, proving allegiance malaya. ancestor of modern-day non-malay malaysian.

as malaya moved self-government, british initiated member system, modelled on cabinet system; clc, drew on members of different communities, , later described setting precedent power-sharing multiracial malayan , malaysian cabinets post-independence. @ same time, british began laying framework national education system create sense of common citizenship . barnes report commissioned, however, objected chinese community being saturated malay nationalism , bolstering ketuanan melayu. fenn-wu report, favoured chinese, did not meet malay approval. in end, barnes report s recommendations english-medium national schools implemented 1952 education ordinance, on vocal chinese protests, upset lack of provision non-malay vernacular schools. in 1956, committee headed tun abdul razak re-evaluated education system. razak report recommended vernacular primary schools permitted continue, share common syllabus national schools. vernacular secondary schools not sanctioned; national secondary schools funded. chinese community strenuously objected razak report well, launching organised campaign against it; mca s refusal oppose report cost politically in chinese constituencies. nevertheless, razak report s recommendations largely successful, , many of them remain in place of 2006.

possible origins of ketuanan melayu

according many historians, root cause of ethnic strife , ketuanan melayu lack of mixing between malays , non-malays. exception straits chinese, managed assimilate reasonably well, despite assimilation taking 600 years including intermarriage. according ming shi-lu, ancestors of straits chinese gifts given sultan of malacca recognition of both bilateral ties between ming dynasty , sultanate, , of malay sovereignty. @ time, rich merchants during british rule instead of manual labourers , many habitually spoke malay, dressed in malay style, , preferred malay cuisine.

the british educational policies segregating different races — providing minimal public education malays, , leaving non-malays own devices — did not matters. malays, predominantly rural-dwellers, not encouraged socialise more urban non-malays. economic impoverishment of malays set them apart better-off chinese fanned racial sentiments.

another contributing factor ketuanan melayu world war ii japanese occupation. war awakened keen political awareness among malayan people intensifying communalism , racial hatred . japanese policies politicised malay peasantry , intentionally fanning flames of malay nationalism. 2 malay historians wrote japanese hostile acts against chinese , apparently more favourable treatments of malays helped make chinese community feel separate identity more acutely... foreign commentator agreed, stating during occupation period ... malay national sentiment had become reality; anti-chinese, , rallying cry [was] malaya malays ...

the alliance - 1955 federal legislative council elections

although umno supported ketuanan melayu, formed alliance mca , malayan indian congress (mic) contest 1955 federal legislative council elections. took many surprise, mca had strenuously insisted on equal political rights citizens. president, tan cheng lock, himself straits chinese, albeit not extremist secessionists. although dismissed marriage of convenience, alliance won 51 out of 52 seats available. sole remaining seat went pan-malayan islamic party (pmip; later known pas), malay-based party , strong advocate of ketuanan melayu. total defeat of non-communal parties led alliance perceive political atmosphere inhospitable multi-racial parties. coalition government comprising mono-racial parties in party leaders privately brokered compromise decisions thought more stable , better suited malayan politics.

prior election, dato onn ja afar had changed approach, forming parti negara after imp suffered crushing losses alliance in local elections. advocating stronger pro-malay policies recognising malay political dominance, parti negara failed shake alliance s grip on power. however, believe parti negara s proposals helped sway umno politicians towards more radically pro-malay policies. british insisted on handing on power multiracial government, , alliance considered meet requirement.