Age of Catherine the Great History of Russia (1721–96)

catherine great s reign featured imperial expansion, brought empire huge new territories in south , west, , internal consolidation. resolved husband s conflict denmark exchanging claims in schleswig-holstein control of duchy of oldenburg , alliance tied denmark s foreign policy russia s through treaty of tsarskoye selo. new russo-turkish war in 1768 ended treaty of kuchuk-kainarji in 1774, russia acquired regions of kerch, yinsdale, , parts of yedisan region, became formal protector of orthodox christians in ottoman empire, , assumed military protectorship of crimean khanate, became nominally independent ottoman empire. in 1783, catherine annexed crimea, helping spark next war ottoman empire, began in 1787. treaty of jassy in 1792, russia expanded southward dniestr river, annexing of yedisan. terms of treaty fell far short of goals of catherine s reputed greek project - expulsion of ottomans south-eastern europe , renewal of byzantine empire under russian control. ottoman empire, no longer posed serious threat russia, however, , had tolerate increasing russian influence on balkans.

russia s westward expansion under catherine resulted partitioning of poland. poland became increasingly weak in eighteenth century, each of neighbors (russia, prussia, , austria) tried place own candidate on polish throne. in 1772 3 agreed on initial partition of polish territory, russia received parts of belarus , livonia. after partition, poland initiated extensive reform program, included democratic constitution alarmed reactionary factions in poland , in russia. using danger of radicalism excuse, same 3 powers abrogated constitution , in 1793 again stripped poland of territory. time russia obtained of belarus , ukraine west of dnieper river. 1793 partition led kościuszko uprising in poland, ended third partition in 1795. result, poland disappeared international political map. russia acquired territories in lithuania , courland in third patition.

polish-lithuanian commonwealth after first partition protectorate of russian empire 1773-1789

although partitioning of poland added russia s territory , prestige, created new difficulties. having lost poland buffer, russia had share borders both prussia , austria. in addition, empire became more ethnically heterogeneous absorbed large numbers of poles, ukrainians, belarusians, lithuanians, , jews. fate of ukrainians , belarusians, worked serfs, changed little @ first under russian rule. roman catholic poles resented loss of independence, however, , proved difficult control, staging several uprisings against occupation. russia had barred jews empire in 1742 , viewed them alien population. decree of january 3, 1792, formally initiated pale of settlement, permitted jews live in western part of empire, thereby setting stage anti-jewish discrimination in later periods. @ same time, russia abolished autonomy of ukraine east of dnieper, baltic provinces, , various cossack territories. emphasis on uniformly administered empire, catherine presaged policy of russification later tsars , successors practice.

historians have debated catherine s sincerity enlightened monarch, few have doubted believed in government activism aimed @ developing empire s resources, creating educated elite, , reforming administration. initially, catherine attempted rationalize government procedures through law. in 1767, created legislative commission, drawn nobles, townsmen, , others, codify russia s laws. although commission did not formulate new law code, catherine s instruction commission introduced modern legal principles. form basis catherine s later legal codes, including statue of administration of provinces (1775), salt trade code , code of commercial navigation (1781), police ordnance (1782), , statue of education (1786).

during 1768-1774 war ottoman empire, russia experienced major social upheaval, pugachev uprising. in 1773, don cossack, emel yan pugachev, declared himself re-emergent tsar peter iii. other cossacks, various turkic tribes felt impingement of russian centralizing state, , industrial workers in ural mountains, peasants hoping escape serfdom, joined in rebellion. russia s preoccupation war enabled pugachev take control of part of volga area, regular army crushed rebellion in 1774.

the pugachev uprising bolstered catherine s determination reorganize russia s provincial administration. in 1775, divided russia provinces , districts according population statistics. gave each province expanded administrative, police, , judicial apparatus. nobles no longer had serve central government, law had required since peter great s time, , many of them received significant roles in administering provincial governments.

title page of catherine ii s instruction, 1767.

catherine attempted organize society well-defined social groups, or estates. in 1785, issued charters nobles , townsmen. charter nobility confirmed liberation of nobles compulsory service , gave them personal rights not autocracy infringe. charter towns established self-government of towns proved complicated , less successful 1 issued nobles.

the modernization of russia continued during catherine s reign. increase in number of books , periodicals brought forth intellectual debates , social criticism of russian enlightenment. in 1790, aleksandr nikolaevich radishchev published journey st. petersburg moscow, fierce attack on serfdom , on autocracy. catherine, frightened french revolution, had radishchev arrested , banished siberia. radishchev later gained recognition father of russian radicalism. in accordance treaty russia had signed georgians protect them against new invasion of persian suzerains , further political aspirations, catherine waged new war against persia in 1796 after had again invaded georgia , established rule on year prior , expelled newly established russian garrisons in caucasus.

catherine brought many of policies of peter great fruition , set foundation 19th century empire. russia became power capable of competing european neighbors in military, political, , diplomatic spheres. russia s elite became culturally more elites of central , west european countries. organization of society , government system, peter great s central institutions catherine s provincial administration, remained unchanged until emancipation of serfs in 1861 and, in respects, until fall of monarchy in 1917. catherine s push south, including establishment of odessa russian port on black sea, provided basis russia s nineteenth-century grain trade.

during nineteenth century, russia s population, resources, international diplomacy, , military forces made 1 of powerful states in world. power enabled play increasingly assertive role in europe s affairs. role drew empire series of wars against napoleon, had far-reaching consequences russia , rest of europe.

internally, russia s population had grown more diverse each territorial acquisition. population included lutheran finns, baltic germans, estonians, , latvians; roman catholic lithuanians, poles, , latvians; orthodox , uniate belarusians , ukrainians; muslim peoples along empire s southern border , in east; orthodox greeks , georgians; , members of armenian apostolic church.